Compiled by W. Andrew Kofke, MD
University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh
Copyright (c) 1996 SNACC All Rights Reserved

1. Bell HE, Bertino JS Jr: Constant diazepam infusion in the treatment of continuous seizure activity. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 18:956-970, 1984

2. Benthuysen JL, Stanley TH: Concerning the possible nature of reported fentanyl seizures. Anesthesiology 62:205, 1985

3. Black JA, Golden FT, Fariello RG: Ketamine activation of experimental corticoreticular epilepsy. Neurology 30:315-318, 1980

4. Bowyer JF, Winters WD: The effects of various anesthetics on amygdaloid kindled seizures. Neuropharmacology 20:199-209, 1981

5. Brazier MA: Thiopental: Effects on subcortical mechanisms in temporal lobe epilepsy. Anesthesiology 28:192-200, 1967

6. Brown AS, Horton JM: Status epilepticus treated by intravenous infusion of thiopentone sodium. Br Med J 1:27-28, 1967

7. Burchiel KJ, Stockard JJ, Calverly RK, Smith NT:Relationship of pre- and post-anesthetic EEG abnormalities to enflurane-induced seizure activity. Anesth Analg 56:509-514,1977

8. Butterbaugh GG, Michelson HB: Anticonvulsant properties of phenycyclidine and ketamine. Nat Inst Drug Res Monogr Ser 64:67-79, 1986

9. Cain DP, Corcoran ME: Epileptiform effects of met-enkephalin, beta-endorphin, and morphine: Kindling of generalized seizures and potentiation of epileptiform effects by handling. Brain Res 338:327-336, 1985

10. Carlsson C, Smith DS, Keykhah MM, Englebach I, Harp JR: The effects of high-dose fentanyl on cerebral circulation and metabolism in rat. Anesthesiology 57:375-380, 1982

11. Cascino GD, So EL, Sharbrough FW, Strelow D, Lagerlund TD, Milde LN, O'Brian PC:Alfentanil-induced epileptiform activity in patients with partial epilepsy. J Clin Neurophys 10:520-25, 1993

12. Celesia GG, Chen C, Bamforth BJ: Effects of ketamine in epilepsy. Neurology 25:169-172, 1975

13. Chugani HT, Ackerman RF, Chugani DC, Engel J Jr.: Opioid-induced epileptogenic phenomena: Anatomical, behavioral and electroencephalographic features. Ann Neurol 15:361-368, 1984

14. Clifford DB, Olney JW, Benz AM, Fuller TA, Zorumski CF: Ketamine, phencyclidien, and MK-801 protect against kainic acid-induced seizure-related brain damage. Epilepsia 31:382-390, 1990

15. Clifford DB, Zormuski CF, Olney JW: Ketamine and MK-801 prevent dengeneration of thalamic neurons induced by focal cortical seizures. Exp Neurol 105:272-279, 1989

16. Corrigall WA: Opiates and the hippocampus: A review of the functional and morphological evidence. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 18:255-262, 1983

17. Corssen G, Little SC, Tavakoli M: Ketamine and epilepsy. Anesth Analg 53:319-335, 1974

18. Dasheiff RM, Kofke WA: Evaluation of the thiopental test in epilepsy surgery patients. Epilepsy Res 15:253-258,1993

19. Domino EF: Comparative seizure inducing properties of various cholinesterase inhibitors: Anatagonism by diazepam and midazolam. Neurotoxicology 8:113-122, 1987

20. Drummond JC, Iragui-Modaz VJ, Alksne CJ, et al.: Masking of epileptiform activity by propofol during seizure surgery. Anesthesiology 1992;76:652-4.

21. Dundee JW, Gray RC: Thiopentone in status epilepticus. Br Med J 1:362, 1967

22. Ebrahim ZY, DeBoaer GE, Luders H, Hahn JF, Leser RP: Effect of etomidate on the electroencephalogram of patients with epilepsy. Anesth Analg 65:1004-1006, 1986

23. Ebrahim ZY, Schubert A, Van Ness P, et al.: The effect of propofol on the electroencephalogram of patients with epilepsy. Anesth Analg 78:275-9, 1994

24. Eger EI 2d: Are seizures caused by nitrous oxide or isoflurane? Anesthesiology 62:697-698, 1985

25. Evans DE: Anaesthesia and the epileptic patient. A review. Anaesthesia 30:44-45, 1975

26. Fariello RG: Epileptogenic properties of enflurane and their clinical interpretation. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 48:595-598, 1980

27. Ferrer-Allado T, Berchnre VL, Dymond A etal: Ketamine-induced electroconvulsive phenomena in the human limbic and thalamic regions. Anesthesiology 38:333-344,1973

28. Fiol ME, Torres F, Gates JR, et al: Methohexital (Brevital) effect on electrocorticogram may be misleading. Epilepsia 31:524-8, 1990

29. Geotting MG, Thirman MJ: Neurotoxicity of meperidine. Ann Emerg Med 14:1007-1009, 1985

30. Grant IS, Hutchinson G: Epileptiform seizures during prolonged etomidate sedation. Lancet 2:511-512, 1983

31. Harper MH, Winter PM, Johnson BH, Koblin DD, Eger EI 2d: Withdrawal convulsions in mice following nitrous oxide. Anesth Analg 59:19-21, 1980

32. Harris R, Paul R: The use of methohexitone in electrocorticography. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 27:333-334, 1969

33. Hymes JA: Seizure activity during isoflurane anesthesia. Anesth Analg 65:367-368, 1985

34. Jain PD, Pandey K, Chandra HK: Diazepam prophylaxis for lignocaine induced convulsions. Anaesth Intensive Care 3:331-333, 1974

35. Jawad S, Oxley J, Wilson J, Richens A: A pharmacodynamic evaluation of midazolam as an anti-epileptic compound. J Neurol Neurosurg Psych 49:1050-1054, 1986

36. Kearse LA Jr, Koski G, Husain MV, et al.: Epileptiform activity during opioid anesthesia. Electroenceph Clin Neurophysiol 87:374-379, 1993.

37. Kofke WA, Garman RH, Garman R, et al.: Opioid Neurotoxicity: Role of neurotransmitter systems [Abstract]. J Neurosurg Anesth 7:321, 1975

38. Kofke WA, Garman RH, Tom WC, Rose ME, Hawkins RA: Alfentanil-induced hypermetabolism, seizure, and neuropathology in rats. Anesth Analg 75:1017-1020,1992

39. Kofke WA, Mintun M, Nemoto E, et al.: Opioid neurotoxicity: Preliminary studies in monkeys undergoing positron emission tomographic (PET) assessment of regional glucose utilization [Abstract]. J Neurosurg Anesth 6:323, 1994

40. Kofke WA, Towfighi J, Garman RH, Graybeal JM, Housman C, Hawkins RA:Effect of anesthetics on neuropathologic sequelae of status epilepticus in rats. Anesth Analg 77:330-7,1993

41. Kofke WA, Young RSK, Davis P, et al: Isoflurane for refractory status epilepticus: A clinical series. Anesthesiology 71:653-659, 1989

42. Komatsu H Taie S Endo S Fukuda K Ueki M Nogaya J Ogli K: Electrical seizures during sevoflurane anesthesia in two pediatric patients with epilepsy. Anesthesiology 81:1535-7,1994

43. Komatsu H, Taie S, Endo S, et al.: Electrical seizures during sevoflurane anesthesia in two pediatric patients with epilepsy. Anesthesiology. 81:1535-1537, 1994

44. Lieb JP, Babb TL, Engel J Jr.: Quantitative comparison of cell loss and thiopental-induced EEG changes in human epileptic hippocampus. Epilepsia 30:147-156, 1989

45. Lothman EW, Collins RC: Kainic acid limbic seizures: Metabolic, behavioral, electroencephalographic and neuropathological correlates. Brain Res 218:299-318, 1981

46. Lowenstein DH, Aminoff MJ, Simon RP: Barbiturate anesthesia in the treatment of status epilepticus: clinical experience with 14 patients. Neurology 38:395-400, 1988

47. Makawa T, Tommasino C, Shapiro HM: Local cerebral blood flow with fentanyl-induced seizures. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 4:88-95, 1984

48. Male CG, Allen EM: Methohexitone-induced convulsions in epileptics. Anaesth Intensiv Care 5:226-230, 1977

49. Manson JH, Dyke G, Melling J, Gough M: The effect of naloxone and morphine on convulsions in mice following withdrawal from nitrous oxide. Can Anaesth Soc J 30:28-31, 1983

50. Mauro VF, Bonfiglio MF, Spunt AL: Meperidine-induced seizure in a patient without renal dysfunction or sickle cell anemia. Clin Pharm 5:837-839, 1986

51. Mesry S, Baradaran J: Accidental intrathecal injection of gallamine triethiodide. Anaesthesia 29:301-304, 1974

52. Michenfelder JD, Cucchiara RF: Canine cerebral oxygen consumption during enflurane anesthesia and its modification during induced seizures. Anesthesiology 40:575-580, 1974

53. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF: Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part 1). 70:303-315, 1990

54. Modica PA, Tempelhoff R, White PF: Pro- and anticonvulsant effects of anesthetics (Part 2). Anesth Analg 70:433-444, 1990

55. Molbegott LP, Flashburg MH, Karasic JL, Karlin BL: Probable seizures after sufentanil. Anesth Analg 66:91-93, 1987

56. Moore DC, Balfour RI, Fitzgibbons D: Convulsive arterial plasma levels of bupivicaine and the response to diazepam therapy. Anesthesiology 50:454-456, 1979

57. Nicol JM: Status epilepticus following enflurane anesthesia. Anaesthesia 41:927-930, 1986

58. Ornstein E, Matteo RS, Young WL, Diaz J: Resistance to metocurine-induced neuromuscular blockade in patients receiving phenytoin. Anesthesiology 63:292-298, 1985

59. Oshima E, Urbe N, Shingu K, Mori K: Anticonvulsant actions of enflurane on epilepsy models in cats. Anesthesiology 63:29-40, 1985

60. Pitt-Miller PL, Elcock BJ, Maharaj M: The management of status epilepticus with a continuous propofol infusion. Anesth Analg. 78:1193-4, 1994

61. Poulton TJ, Ellingson RF: Seizure associated with induction of anesthesia with isoflurane. Anesthesiology 61:471-476, 1984

62. Puglisi-Allegra S, Cabib S, Oliverio A: Pharmacological evidence for a protective role of the endogenous opioid system on electroshock-induced seizures in the mouse. Neurosci Lett 62:241-247, 1985

63. Rampil IJ, Lopez CE, Laxer KD, et al.: Propofol sedation may disrupt interictal epilepiform activity from a seizure focus. Anesth Analg. 77:1071-3, 1993

64. Rao TL, Mummaneni N, El-Etr AA: Convulsions: An unusual response to intravenous fentanyl administration. Anesth Analg 61:1020-1021, 1982

65. Rashkin MC, Youngs C, Penovich P: Pentobarbital treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 37:500-503, 1987

66. Rockoff MA, Goudsouzian NG: Seizures induced by methohexital. Anesthesiology 54:333-335, 1981

67. Ropper AH, Kofke WA, Bromfield EB, Kennedy SK: Comparison of isoflurane, halothane, and nitrous oxide in status epilepticus. Ann Neurol 19:98-99, 1986

68. Rudehill A, Gordon E, Grepe A, Widen L: The epileptogenicity of neurolept anaesthesia in patients during and after neuroradiological examinations with metrizamide. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 27:285-288, 1983

69. Safwat AM, Daniel D: Grand mal seizure after fentanyl administration. Anesthesiology 59:78, 198

70. Samra SK, Sneyd JR, Ross DA, et al.: Effects of propofol sedation on seizures and intracranially recorded epileptiform activity in patients with partial epilepsy. Anesthesiology 82:843-51, 1995

71. Sawyer GT, Webster DD, Schut LF: Treatment of uncontrolled seizure activity with diazepam. JAMA 203:913-918, 1986

72. Schettini A, Wilder BJ: Effects of anticonvulsant drugs on enflurane cortical dysrhythmias. Anesth Analg 53:951-962, 1974

73. Scott JC, Sarnquist FH: Seizure-like movements during a fentanyl infusion with absence of seizure activity in a simultaneous EEG recording. Anesthesiology 62:812-814, 1985

74. Siggins GR, Henriksen SJ, Chavkin C, Gruol D: Opioid peptides and epileptogenesis in the limbic system: cellular mechanisms. Adv Neurol 44:505-512, 1986

75. Sinz EH, Kofke WA, Garman RH: Phenytoin, midazolam, and naloxone protect rats from fentanyl-induced brain damage [Abstract]. J Neurosurg Anesth 1995;7:301.

76. Smith NT, Benthuysen JL, Bickford RG, Sanford TJ, Blasco T, Duke PC, Head N, Dec-Silver H: Seizures during opioid anesthetic induction--are they opioid-induced rigidity? Anesthesiology 71:852-862, 1989

77. Smith RA, Winter PM, Smith M, Eger EI 2d: Convulsions in mice after anesthesia. Anesthesiology 50:501-504, 1979

78. Snead OC III, Bearden LF: The epileptogenic spectrum of opiate agonists. Neuropharmacology 21:1137-1144, 1982

79. Snyder EW, Shearer DE, Beck EC, Dustman RE: Naloxone-induced electrographic seizures in the primate. Psychopharmacology 67:211-214, 1980

80. Sperling MR, Brown WJ, Crandall PH: Focal burst-suppression induced by thiopental. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 63:203-208, 1986

81. Sprung J Schedewie HK: Apparent focal motor seizure with a jacksonian march induced by fentanyl: a case report and review of the literature. J Clin Anesth 4:139-43,1992

82. Sutherland MJ Burt P: Propofol and seizures. Anaesth Intensive Care 22:733-7,1994

83. Sutherland MJ, Burt P: Propofol and seizures.[Review] Anaesthesia & Intensive Care. 22:733-7, 1994

84. Tassinari CA, Daniele O, Michelucci R, Bureau M, Dravet C, Roger J: Benzodiazepines: Efficacy in status epilepticus. Adv Neurol 34:465-475, 1983

85. Tempelhoff R, Modica PA, Bernardo KL etal: Fentanyl-induced electrocorticographic seizures in patients with complex partial epilepsy. J Neurosurg 77:201-8, 1992

86. Tommasino C, Mawkawa T, Shapiro HM, Keifer-Goodman J, Kohlenberger RW: Fentanyl-induced seizures activate subcortical brain metabolism. Anesthesiology 60:283-290, 1984

87. Tortella FC, Robles L, Mosberg HI: Evidence for mu opioid receptor mediation of enkephalin-induced electroencephalographic seizures. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 240:571-577, 1987

88. Turski WA, Czuczwar SJ, Kleinok Z, Schwartz M, Turski L: Intra-amygdaloid morphine produces seizures and brain damage in rats. Life Sci 33:615-618, 1983

89. Urca G, Frenk H, Liebeskind JC, Taylor AN: Morphine and enkephalin: Analgesic and epileptic properties. Science 197:83-86, 1977

90. Urca G, Frenk H: Systemic morphine blocks the seizures induced by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of opiates and opioid peptides. Brain Res 246:121-126, 1982

91. Usubiaga JE, Wikinski J, Ferrero R, Usubiaga IE, Wikinski R: Local anesthetic-induced convulsions in man - an electroencephalographic study. Anesth Analg 45:611-620, 1966

92. Werz MA, MacDonald RL: Opiate alkaloids antagonize postsynaptic glycine and GABA responses: Correlation with convulsant action. Brain Res 236:107-119, 1982

93. Yamashior M, Sumitomo M, Furuya H: Paroxysmal electroencephalographic discharges during enflurane anaesthesia in patients with a history of cerebral convulsions. Br J Anaesth 54:1029-1037, 1985

94. Young GB, Blume WT, Bolton CF, Warren KG: Anesthetic barbiturates in refractory status epilepticus. Can J Neurol Sci 7:291-292, 1980

95. Young ML, Smith DS, Greenburg J, Reivich M, Harp JR: Effects of sufentanil on regional cerebral glucose utilization in rats. Anesthesiology 61:564-568, 1984

96. Young RS, Ropper AH, Hawkes D, Woods M, Yohn P: Pentobarbital in refractory status epilepticus. Pediatr Pharmacol 3:63-67, 1983

97. Zieglgansberger W, French ED, Siggins GR, Bloom FE: Opioid peptides may excite hippocampal pyramidal neurons by inhibiting adjacent inhibitory interneurons. Science 205:415-417, 1979